Postnatal Depression and Social Exclusion

Postnatal Depression and Social Exclusion An essay Structural Requirements : The essay must include: What postnatal depression is; What is Post Natal Depression? Postnatal depression is a discrete clinical entity which appears to have a number of different aetiological factors. It does not appear to be greatly influenced by geography (Affonso et al 2000), or culture (Oates et al, 2004). A typical rate for detection of postnatal depression is quoted as about 13% of postnatal women (O’Hara et al 1996). It classically arises during the first three months post partum but the spread of onset is wide. (Cooper Murray 1995) One of the prime factors is considered to be the sudden postnatal drop in progesterone levels in the post partum days. (Nappi et al 2001) The placenta is responsible for the vast majority of circulating progesterone during pregnancy and it’s delivery is effectively responsible for the precipitate drop in levels post partum. There may also be other related hormonal changes including the fluctuations in prolactin levels (Hendrick et al 1998) and falling oestrogen and cortisol levels. (Halari et al. 2004) Symptoms can initially include irritability, tearfulness, insomnia, hypochondriasis, headache and impairment of concentration. There is a maximal incidence of these symptoms on about the fifth post partum day and these can progress to frank depressive symptoms over a variable period. (Ramsay et al 1995). There are various tools that can be used to measure the degree of depression and these include the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale,(Cox et al 1987), The Stein scale for maternity blues, (Stein 1980) and the Beck depression rating inventory. (Beck et al 1961). The key issues that affect the health and well being of people who are described as vulnerable'(in this case have postnatal depression); Key issues affecting vulnerable patients There have been a number of studies that look at the effectiveness of treatment of postnatal depression. One of the most recent publications (Dennis 2005) provides a meta-analysis of the factors which influence the outcome in the condition. The author concluded that the only strategy that was shown to have â€Å"a clear preventative effect† was intensive post-partum support from the healthcare professionals involved in the case. Curiously, this was found to be more effective than similar regimes which included an ante-natal component as well. The morbidity associated with postnatal depression has a number of potential consequences not only for the mother, but also the child and the rest of the family as well. (Oakley et al 1996) One of the most significant is the fact that one episode of postnatal depression is the greatest predictor (or risk factor) for another episode after subsequent pregnancies. The children are likely to have difficulties because of possible problems with bonding and the mother’s possible negative perceptions of the behaviour of the children. (Cooper Murray 1997) Some studies have shown that mothers with postnatal depression have derived beneficial help from social support during pregnancy. (Ray et al 2000). It would therefore appear that the key issues in this area are identification of the predictive factors that make postnatal depression more likely and then the provision of prompt supportive measures if those factors are established. Resources at local, regional national level that offer support to people with postnatal depression (my local area is hull, east york’ ); Local resources for support Apart from the more â€Å"traditional â€Å" resources of the primary healthcare team of the General Practice the Midwife and the Health Visitor, some centres have tried experiments with postnatal support worker provision (To the client: I don’t know if this is relevant to your area. If it is, you may wish to enlarge on this) (Morrell 2000). This particular study found that the patients found an high level of satisfaction with the service – but no more so than with the services provided by the rest of the primary healthcare team. Analysis of the results showed that the postnatal support worker helped to achieve higher levels of breast feeding, but had little impact on the severity or frequency of postnatal depression. One significant factor that was found, however, was that support from a partner was a significant positive factor in preventing severe postnatal depression. Must identify and reflect on appropriate communication strategies when working with vulnerable people; Communication strategies Several recent studies have shown that healthcare professionals often fail to spot the signs of postnatal depression. (Bick et al 1995). Making the diagnosis is obviously the prerequisite of establishing a treatment regime so it is clearly vital for all healthcare professionals to be on their guard for warning signs – sleep disturbance, irritability, mood swings and irrationality. (Ramsay et al 1995) Reflection and reflective practice is a vital part of effective nursing. (Gibbs 1998) . Each healthcare professional should ideally reflect upon their management of each individual case to decide whether they were communicating optimally with the patient and that they were fully receptive to all that was on the patient’s agenda. Communication is a two-way modality. Bulman (et al.2004) points to the need to understand, at a deeper level, just what it is the message that the patient is taking away from any interaction. Communication is therefore vital in the strategy to empower and educate the vulnerable patient. Must identify the role of the midwife / health visitor and other health and social care professionals in the promotion of social inclusion Role of midwife and Health Visitor The new mother is often at the centre of an emotional rollercoaster. The sudden culmination of nine months of expectation results (frequently) in a flurry of support from healthcare professionals and family, which then rapidly evaporates and the mother is left to deal with the new situation which is frequently stressful. (Kitzman et al 1997) The midwife can obviously help by preparing the ground in the antenatal period and offering support in the immediate postnatal period. (Dennis 2005). The health visitor is probably better placed to be aware of any developing warning signals that postnatal depression is developing, as they are likely to be in contact with the patient during the â€Å"high risk period†. (Cooper Murray 1995). It has been suggested that encouragement of the mother to attend the health visitor clinic rather than to have home visits is a positive way of encouraging social inclusion. (Seeley et al 1996) Studies which have looked at the cost-effectiveness of using community postnatal support service workers have shown no benefit over the more traditional midwife and Health Visitor support. (Morrell et al 2000) References Affonso DD, De AK, Horowitz JA, Mayberry LJ. 2000  An international study exploring levels of postpartum depressive symptomatology.  J Psychosom Res 2000;49: 207-16. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Baugh J. 1961  An inventory for measuring depression.  Arch Gen Psychiatry 1961;4:561-71. Bick D, MacArthur C. 1995  The extent, severity and effect of health problems after childbirth.  Br J Midwifery 1995; 3: 27-31 Bulman Schultz 2004  Reflective Practice in Nursing  The Growth of the Professional Practitioner Third Edition  Edited By: CHRIS BULMAN, School of Health Care, Oxford Brookes University SUE SCHUTZ, Oxford Brookes University 2004 Cooper Murra 1995  Course and recurrence of postnatal depression. Evidence for the specificity of the diagnostic concept  The British Journal of Psychiatry 166: 191-195 (1995) Cooper P, Murray L. 1997  Prediction, detection, and treatment of postnatal depression.  Arch Dis Child 1997;77: 97-9   Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. 1987  Detection of post-natal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh post-natal depression scale.  Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:782-6. Dennis C-L. 2005 Psychosocial and psychological interventions for prevention of postnatal depression: systematic review BMJ, Jul 2005; 331: 15.   Gibbs, G (1998)  Learning by doing: A guide to Teaching and Learning methods EMU Oxford Brookes University, Oxford. 1998 Halari, V. Kumari, R. Mehrotra, M. Wheeler, M. Hines, and T. Sharma 2004  The Relationship of Sex Hormones and Cortisol with Cognitive functioning in Schizophrenia  J Psychopharmacol, September 1, 2004; 18(3): 366 374.   Hendrick, L. L. Altshuler, and R. Suri 1998  Hormonal Changes in the Postpartum and Implications for Postpartum Depression  Psychosomatics, April 1, 1998; 39(2): 93 101 Kitzman H, Olds DL, Henderson CR, Hanks C, Cole R, Tatelbaum R, et al. L 1997  Effect of prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses on pregnancy outcomes, childhood injuries, and repeated childbearing.  JAMA 1997; 278: 644-652 Nappi, F. Petraglia, S. Luisi, F. Polatti, C. Farina, and A. R. Genazzani 2001  Serum Allopregnanolone in Women With Postpartum Blues  Obstet. Gynecol., January 1, 2001; 97(1): 77 80. Oakley A, Hickey D, Rajan L. 1996  Social support in pregnancy: does it have long-term effects?  J Reprod Infant Psychol 1996; 14: 7-22. Oates MR, Cox JL, Neema S, Asten P, Glangeaud-Freudenthal N, Figueiredo B, et al. 2004  Postnatal depression across countries and cultures: a qualitative study.  Br J Psychiatry Suppl 2004;46: s10-6. OHara M, Swain A. 1996  Rates and risk of postpartum depression—a meta-analysis.  Int Rev Psychiatry 1996;8: 37-54. Ramsay. R and T. Fahy 1995  Recent Advances: Psychiatry  BMJ, July 15, 1995; 311(6998): 167 170. Ray KL, Hodnett ED. 2000  Caregiver support for postpartum depression. In: Cochrane Collaboration,ed. Cochrane Library. Issue 1.  Oxford: Update Software, 2000. Seeley S, Murray L, Cooper PJ. 1996  The outcome for mothers and babies of health visitor intervention.  Health Visitor 1996;69:135-138. Stein GS. 1980  The pattern of mental change and body weight in the first post partum week.  J Psychosom Res 1980;24:1165-71. PDG. Word count 1,665

Hamlet (Shakespeare): “Mad,” “Sane,” or “None of the Above”? Essay

A form of theatrical representation, metadrama (Danner), revealed Hamlet’s convictions about the behaviors and character of his mother, father, step-father, and, most importantly, himself (Shakespeare).   Metadramatic techniques reveal to the audience that characters in a play themselves are aware they are in a play and are providing additional information that the audience can accept as truthful (Danner). While these characters have no motivation to be deceitful, they may demonstrate to the audience their ability to deceive themselves.   Most notably, in Hamlet, the audience can accept information in particular soliloquies, the play-within-a-play, and from the ghost of Hamlet’s father as accurate representations of Hamlet’s and even the ghost’s own perceptions.   Why would any self-respecting ghost return to earth other than to reveal the truth?   And why would Hamlet choose to lie to us through a soliloquy? However, most importantly, we have an opportunity to witness Hamlet’s own unintentional self-deceptions.   In using examples of these techniques to evaluate Hamlet’s mental condition, â€Å"sanity† was not conceptualized as a categorical variable with two levels, â€Å"sane† or â€Å"mad.† Creating â€Å"madness† in a fictional character in a literary masterpiece (e.g., Ophelia in Hamlet) does not impose the difficulties encountered when trying to differentiate between those who are legally â€Å"mad† vs. â€Å"bad† (Emery & Oltmanns 429-433) or when trying to form two discrete diagnostic categories (Emery & Oltmanns 3-14). Regarding the question of whether Hamlet was â€Å"mad† or â€Å"sane,† in the analysis presented below, he has been conceptualized as unfortunate in having characteristics that did not match the particular demands needed for the unusual circumstances of his life and also in having the facility for self-deception that prevented him from recognizing the futility of nonetheless persevering. At the beginning of the play, Hamlet was a young man grieving following the death of the father he apparently still had worshipped as young boys not infrequently do, until they learn what is and isn’t â€Å"cool†.   Hamlet, of course, seemingly for worse rather than for better, actually had that all-powerful father, strong, courageous, respected and also loved by all.   Not prepared for his father’s death, Hamlet was even less prepared for his mother’s fast re-marriage to her brother-in-law. Magnificent poetry is no less magnificent if it comes from the mouth of someone too inexperienced to have learned the difference between the kinds of painful events that characterize human existence and those that will always get our own or most anyone’s attention, for example, the difference between our recently widowed mother having sex with the village idiot and her being sent to Hitler’s gas chambers.   The intensity and obsessive nature of his suicidal depression alone would have permitted a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; American Psychiatric Association manual, as cited in Emery & Oltmanns):   â€Å"O, that this too too solid flesh would Melt{,} and resolve itself into a dew!   Or that he Everlasting had not fix’d His cannon ‘gainst self-slaughter!   O God! God! How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, Seem to me all the uses of this world!† (Hamlet 10). Interestingly, more than two centuries before Freud’s birth, Shakespeare had dramatized the kind of observation on which the latter based psychoanalytic theory (as cited in Shaffer).   First, in the soliloquy cited above, Hamlet did not yet even know that the cause of his father’s death was homicide and would not himself have recognized that his suicidal depression was caused not by his father’s death but by his mother’s sexual betrayal (in Hamlet’s view) of his father, when she went with â€Å"most wicked speed, to post With such dexterity to incestuous sheets!† (10). Without apology for violating one of the many dictates of the politically correct (PC), the dictate never to mention the name â€Å"Freud† without including the phrase â€Å"sexist† (Bowers & Farvolden), it does not even seem possible to avoid imagining Dr. Freud, while rubbing his whiskers thoughtfully, concluding that while Hamlet had resolved his fear of paternal retribution for his Oedipal desires by closely identifying with his father, his resolution of the Oedipal stage was incomplete because, regarding his mother, in wording compatible with Hamlet’s revered Bible, he still was â€Å"lusting in his heart† and, rather than blame his mother as an individual, he instead (innocently and blissfully untroubled today’s PC) blamed women’s nature, â€Å"Frailty, thy name is woman!† (10). His ambiguous view of his mother was perhaps not unlike children who blame their mothers for all that is wrong with their lives and the world, yet for whom the phrase â€Å"your mother,† in themselves, are fighting words.   To reinforce the doubts he already had about Gertrude (noted above), Shakespeare gave him the ghost of his father who simultaneously condemned and forgave her, in effect setting her up as a target for both justifiable rage and self-restraint: Claudius â€Å"won to his shameful lust The will of my most seeming-virtuous queen† (20) and Hamlet should â€Å"Let not the royal bed of Denmark be A couch for luxury and damned incest.   But, however, thou pursuest this act, Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contrive Against thy mother†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (21).   The ghost of Hamlet’s father encouraged what already was his simmering attribution of blame, not overly concerned about the fairness of Gertrude sharing Claudius’ guilt.   In fact, we know that people distort their own perceptions and memories in a direction consistent with their beliefs (Schacter), explaining how Hamlet managed to interpret the ghost’s condemnation of Gertrude as strong enough to warrant his own conclusion, â€Å"O most pernicious woman!† (22). Indeed, people who have suffered misfortune frequently do seek out other people to blame.   We do not like to believe we are at the mercy of random inexplicable accidents or that there is no meaning to account for the occurrence of adverse events or that we do not have immortal souls.   Thus, while Claudius most certainly was guilty of committing â€Å"murder most foul† (20), what did Gertrude actually do to warrant her son’s animosity?   When does she ever show us the loathsome side of herself we have come to expect? Regarding her husband, she, in fact, does not seem guilty of anything more than being naively trusting, when as a recent and lonely widow, she was human in being receptive to the sexual overtures of a man she believed shared her own grief.   Despite what her son and her husband’s ghost indignantly protested, for centuries, marriage between even blood relatives might be considered a national European sport (Coontz). Regarding Hamlet, her â€Å"crimes† seemed no more than being overly tolerant of his disrespectful treatment and overly supportive to the extent of being his cheerleader in what she failed to recognize was not a game but a lethal battle with Laertes: â€Å"He’s fat, and scant of breath.   Here Hamlet, take my napkin, rub thy brows; the queen carouses to thy fortune† (Hamlet, 99).   In her exuberance, she drank poison from the cup her husband had prepared for Hamlet. It would seem that Hamlet’s fatal flaw was less his inability to exact revenge from Claudius than his facility at finding and deceiving himself into believing about any possible excuse, thus preventing him from accept himself for not being the â€Å"man of action† expected of the son of a great king.   Under other circumstances, differing from his father regarding physical accomplishments might have led to no more than the timeless struggle between, for example, the father who had been star quarterback in high school and the son who was in his father’s eyes the star high-school nerd. It was Hamlet’s incredible myopia regarding the excuses he was making for failing to act that led inexorably to a tragic bloodbath in the end.   Hamlet, it turned out, like J. Alfred Prufrock, was â€Å"not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be† (Eliot line 111).   Had Hamlet a chance to â€Å"grow old† (line 120), he might have recognized his own nature in time to avoid becoming â€Å"an attendant lord†¦deferential, glad to be of use† (lines 112, 115). However, he too had â€Å"wept and prayed† (line 81) and rather than finding â€Å"the strength and courage to force the moment to a crisis† (line 80), he found only excuses for failing to act.   Indeed, Hamlet seemed to sincerely believe he would have been able to end his torment through suicide had his religion not prohibited â€Å"self-slaughter† (Hamlet, 10). These excuses included an odd need for evidence that the ghost was truthful (53), failing to act after the play-within-a-play elicited the demonstration of guilt Hamlet sought from Claudius (surprisingly, since the sociopath of Hamlet’s description would not be likely to even feel guilt – and after a stunningly convincing description of his own conscience, why did Claudius not remember this conscience after again Hamlet failed to kill him?) because of his mistaken perception of Claudius being in the act of prayer.   Ironically, as Claudius was acknowledging that his â€Å"offense is rank it smells to heaven; It hath the primal eldest curse upon’t, A brother’s murder. Pray can I not† (64), Hamlet, echoing the ghost of his father at the beginning of the play, could not kill Claudius because if killed while in prayer, â€Å"he goes to heaven †¦Ã‚   this is †¦ not revenge† (65).   At this point, he failed even to question the justice of a religion that rewards a minute of remorse with heaven and punishes anyone unfortunate enough to die suddenly with hell.   Hamlet never did describe what his father might have done so that he was â€Å"cut off even in the blossom of my sins† (21). Was Hamlet â€Å"mad†?   He was not mad unless the label is consistently used to describe anyone demonstrating self-destructive patterns of thought.   For that matter, if we describe Hamlet as â€Å"mad,† there would be no reason for excluding the millions of people who fit, to varying degrees, even one diagnostic description in the American Psychiatric Association manual (as cited in Emery & Oltmanns). Is Hamlet â€Å"sane†?   The label again would fit only if it also were used to describe virtually all of us who demonstrate any of the subjective feelings of distress described in the same manual.   The text of Hamlet did not even provide enough information to form a reliable conclusion about his thoughts and behaviors prior to his father’s death.   He might have been feeling distressed his entire life because of experiences such as the death of his pet flea or a stubbed toe. The genuine tragedy of Hamlet was that the eloquence and stunningly brutal clarity with which he expressed the universal human condition in his most famous soliloquy did not prevent his doom and, indeed, might have been so brilliant that he would have been blinded had he not turned away: a condition where the only escape from â€Å"the whips and scorns of time† is into the potentially worse â€Å"undiscover’d country †¦ [that] makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of† (48). Works Cited Bowers, Kenneth, & Farvolden, Peter.   â€Å"Revisiting a Century-old Freudian Slip – From   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suggestion Disavowed to the Truth Repressed.† Psychological Bulletin, 119   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1996): 355-380. Coontz, S.   Marriage, a History: From Obedience to Intimacy or How Love Conquered   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marriage.   New York: Viking, 2005. Danner, Bruce.   â€Å"Speaking Daggers.† Shakespeare Quarterly, 54 (2003): 29-62. Eliot, T.S. The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.   Retrieved 17 May 2009, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   www.bartleby.com/1981.html. Emery, Robert E., & Oltmanns, Thomas F. Essentials of Abnormal Psychology.   Upper

The Impact of Co-teaching on the Student Achievement

The term co-teaching refers to a teaching practice whereby two or more professional teachers are involved in delivering substantive instructions to a group or class of students, who are diverse and blended. The delivering of instructions by the teachers occurs in a single physical space. In this arrangement of teaching, the regular and special educators (co-teachers) are involved in teaching students who belong to the same class. In some cases, co-teachimg is done in order to assist students with disabilities or those with learning difficulties, as compared to other students in the class (Brooks, V.2004).The two educators in co-teaching are referred to as the regular and the special educators. The responsibility of a regular educator includes the preparing of the general class content as well as the lesson plan. The special educator on the other hand is responsible for adapting the content of what is to be taught to the students. In addition, the special educator presents the class c ontent in a manner that meets the needs of the students especially those who may have learning difficulties.It is therefore important to note that in co-teaching, the special and the regular educators have their different responsibilities and roles. However,the teachers are expected to work together in harmony so that each individual student ‘s learning needs are catered for. Co-teaching is one of the ways through which collaborative teaching can occur (Adams, L. et al. 1993). Collaborative arrangement based on co-teaching brings together two educators (regular and special) and the related personnel in order to ensure that students with disabilities have all their learning needs met.This requires the teachers to spend some reasonable amount of time in a regular class so that students are provided with the appropriate support. A teaching program that adopts co-teaching as a teaching practice should always be effective for both the teachers and the students. This ensures that th e objectives of co-teaching are achieved. The concept of co-teaching has existed in the education system for some time now. This method of teaching has been growing very fast in schools due to the important role it plays on student achievement.Though effective as a teaching tool, co-teaching has faced some challenges when it comes to evaluation as well as supervision. Just like in the other teaching practices, co-teaching requires the teachers to prepare a co-teaching module in order to increase the success of the education programs. Thesis Statement Co-teaching has now become a very popular method of teaching in many schools. As a concept, the teaching arrangement aims at meeting the needs of all students, including the disabled and those with learning difficulties.This aims at boosting the students’ achievement. The objectives of the education programs that are used in class can be easily achieved through effective co-teaching. This will involve the adoption of good co-teac hing relationships as well as skills. Co-teaching has some impact on the student achivement. In this paper, both the lesser and the greater impacts of co-teaching on the student achievement will be discussed. Discussion Co-teaching increases student achievement by developing a good learning environment.Having a good classroom environment enables students to perform well, because it ensures that factors that increase the students’ achievement are always present. The students show poor performance when the classroom environment hinders their proper concentration and understanding in their learning (Cowley, S. 2006). Therefore, a good learning environment improves the performance of the students and vice versa. A good example of a good classroom environment that improves student performance is the one that is heterogeneous.The co-teaching programs are very instrumental in creating a heterogeneous classroom environment (Cook, L. 2004). This discourages monotony in learning, hence learning becomes exciting and enjoyable for the students. When students enjoy learning, they become more engaged in learning and they are ready to work hard in order to perform well. The increased participation of students in learning promotes a healthy teacher-student relationship, which is very important when it comes to effective teaching and good performance in students.Co-teaching creates more room for learning and sharing for both the teachers and the students, which is a great step towards positive achievement in students. Co-teaching facilitates positive achievement in students through improved instruction. Through the co-teaching programs, the teachers are able to deliver improved instruction to the students. Due to the students’ different academic abilities, the teachers have a great responsibility of ensuring that the students achieve their learning objectives despite their different academic abilities (Kyriacou, C. 2000).The differences are used to determine what needs to be done so as to assist a particular student. For instance, while some students are academically gifted, the others have average ability. In addition, some students are always at the risk of failing in class due to their low academic ability and lack of effective teaching methods by the teachers. It is only by identifying the individual students’ academic abilities that teachers can offer the necessary assistance to students who need special attention. For example, the ability of the disabled students to perform well depends on how well their special needs are met in class.There is need for teachers to ensure that all students learn well, despite the differences in their academic abilities. This can be done by assisting the students to maximize their potential in class. This is what co-teaching does through improved instruction. The needs of the students based on their different academic abilities are well addressed in co-teaching. This improves the achievement of t he students, since their learning needs are addressed on time and in the right manner. The problems that are faced by the students can always be solved at the right time to promote good student achievement.In any profession, having unique professional relationships encourages commitment and dedication of the workers. In the teaching profession, teachers who have unique professional relationships are able to work together in a complementary manner. Because professional relationship has to be built on trust, communication, parity, and respect, the co-teachers integrate these values in their teaching (Richard, A. et al 2008). When the teaching is based on positive values, the students are able to learn properly.This increases the students’ ability to adopt learning based on values that maximize their potential, hence they show a high level of achievement. Creating a sense of belonging and support in the classroom encourages the sharing of learning experiences between the teacher s and the students (Rosenberg, M. 2003). This means that all learning experiences, whether good or bad can be shared. For instance, co-teachers who have been involved in teaching programs have clearly stated that they have enjoyed a sense of support fostered by the teaching programs.Therefore, teachers are always able to share a spectacular lesson with the students. On the other hand, whenever a lesson is challenging, the teachers are able to share their experiences. When students feel that they need to share their learning experiences with the teachers, they are able to appreciate learning. Since the students feel obliged to participate in the learning process, they can perform well to achieve what is expected of them. This increases the students’ achievement. Co-teaching is an innovative approach in teaching, which has both the conceptual and operational aspects.There is need to develop and adopt co-teaching programs through proper planning, implementation, and also evaluat ion. One of the impacts of co-teaching on student achievement is closely related to solving the problem of stigmatization of the students with disabilities. In a regular class, students with disabilities are sometimes faced with learning difficulties due to being perceived as â€Å"different†. This means that the students tend to be disadvantaged when it comes to learning because of their nature of being disabled.The other students in class may stigmatize the students who are disabled because they consider them as lacking something. Consequently, the students with special needs may be treated unfairly by the others due to their special needs. By being stigmatized, students with special needs may tend to show poor performance in class. They fail to meet the goals of the courses that they are taught in class. In order to improve the performance of these students and to increase their achievement, co-teaching can be used (Marston, N. Accesed on October 9, 2008). This is very ben eficial to the students.The teachers who are involved in co-teaching programs are able to deliver their services effectively to the students who are disabled, and therefore have special needs. The stigmatization of the students is greatly reduced, a situation that has been proved to improve the performance of the students. Through the co-teaching programs, the teachers increase understanding of the students about the content of the courses that the students are taught. This motivates the students to learn, as well as to share what they have learned in class with the others.In addition to increasing the students’ understanding, co-teaching advocates for respect towards the disabled children from the fellow classmates. The fact that the disabled students have special needs means that they may require some special attention from the others, a situation that the fellow students may try to ignore. When co-teaching promotes respect for the disabled and minimizes their stigmatizatio n, the student achievement in learning increases. It is very important to note that, co-teaching takes care of the students’ and teachers’ needs.For instance, co-teaching advocates for a teaching approach that minimizes transitions when students show the tendency to disrupt transitions. At the same time, co-teaching approaches create room for frequent changes so that the students’ needs for extra motivation are encouraged. Co-teaching approaches promote the addressing of the teachers’ needs. The approach can either allow independent teaching for teachers with different teaching styles, or working together within a shared approach. The most appropriate approach can then be adopted depending on the teachers’ and students’ needs.The student achievement is increased when the most appropriate approach in co-teaching is adopted. For instance, a student can be able to have a more detailed observation in the learning process. A teaching approach, â €Å"One teach, One Observe† has teachers decide on the type of observational information that needs to be gathered during instruction in advance. The teachers can then easily agree on the best gathering data. The co-teachers are then able to analyze information, which they can use constructively in the classroom. Instructional fragmentation in learning affects the performance of students negatively.This often occurs when service delivery options are offered to students in the learning process. This requires the students to leave the classroom so as to receive the services, a situation that promotes instructional fragmentation. This can be well minimized when students do not have to leave the classroom in order to receive instructions. When students receive instructions through the co-teaching programs, the instructional fragmentation is minimized. This is because, the students do not necessarily leave the classroom to receive the services.Well referred to as the co-teacher, t he special service provider improves student learning by their good understanding of the class curriculum. This means that the curriculum is well developed and implemented to suit the needs of the students (Moran, G. 1997). In addition to this, a special service provider is empowered by the co-teaching programs to understand well the academic expectations. By understanding the curriculum, the teacher concentrates on issues that aim at ensuring that the performance of the students is always improving.Co-teaching encourages the development of a teaching model that promotes positive achievement in students. The teaching models used in co-teaching require individual teachers to always bring certain characteristics and knowledge voluntarily in class. This is further complemented by skills that the teachers voluntarily use in class. Since teachers have special personal charateristics, bringing their characteristics in class voluntarily enable them to work effectively with the other teache rs. By working together in harmony, the teachers are able to strengthen each other in teaching (Jill, A. ET al.2007). A co-teaching model requires teachers to have sets of common skills as well as common knowledge. Furthermore, the teachers show knowledge that is specific to discipline. Through the models, teachers are able to coordinate classroom activities to suit the needs of the students, and to facilitate learning in a good classroom environment. Since teaching becomes voluntary for teachers, they are able to fully maximize their potential in teaching. When the teachers deliver their best, the students on the other hand receive the best. This no doubt improves the performance of the students in class.The classroom dynamics based on co-teaching models make the classroom interactions very unique. Having well defined classroom responsibilities and duties allows the teachers to specialize on particular classroom topics (Gail, E. et al. 2001). These topics can be taught intensively such that the students’ understanding about a particular topic is increased. The teachers are then able to provide support to individual students by ensuring that a whole class instructional flow is successfully maintained. A co-teaching curriculum is very instrumental in reflecting the students’ needs.By so doing, the curriculum is then implemented with the aim of addressing the compensatory, developmental, and academic skills. The student achievement is boosted when skills are improved based on how the co-teaching curriculum is implemented. The students’ efforts are easily monitored by the teachers in a co-teaching program. The students’ performance can be improved when the curriculum and the teaching techniques are reviewed (Ellis, V . 2004) this calls for appropriate teaching measures based on the weaknesses and the strengths of a co-teaching curriculum.Another co-teaching approach, â€Å"One Teach, One Drift†, allows teaching by one teacher wh ile the co-teacher at the same time assists students in class without disrupting the one who is teaching. The student supervision by the teachers is important in good student perfomance. This is what the â€Å"Parallel Teaching† co-teaching approach does. Through such an approach, the students who have been involved in co-teaching have had their class achievement increased greatly. Other approaches that can be used in co-teaching include Station Teaching, Alternative Teaching, and Team Teaching.The diversity of teaching approaches offers teachers an opportunity to adopt the best and the most appropriate teaching approach based on the different and diverse student needs. This encourages proper matching of a given particular approach with the needs. The students’ achievement is increased when proper teaching approaches are adopted in teaching (Curren, R. 2006). Students in a co-teaching program are able to develop a comfortable relationship with the teachers through the well-built relationship between the two parties. The students can express themselves freely, sense harmony, and tension that may exist in a learning environment.A positive relationship can easily be established between a teacher and students in a co-teaching program. Through the relationship, misunderstandings that may arise in class are minimized (Capel, S. , and Turner, T. 2005). The problems that may arise in a class room environment are then resolved before they affect the students’ performance negatively. Co-teaching creates a cohesive classroom where the teacher and the students are able to work together towards achieving the goals of the courses taught in class. While they appreciate the strengths of what they experience during the learning process, they also recognize the weaknesses.By recognizing the weaknesses, the teachers and the students strive to turn the weaknesses into opportunities of improving learning. Furthermore, learning that integrates Individualized Ed ucation Plans can be developed. The plans are very important in ensuring that the needs of the students are well taken care of. Through co-teaching, the teachers are able to take risks . This means that new methods of teaching can be explored. This makes it easy for teachers to learn from each other, and hence they can grow as professionals. Conclusion Learning is very important in any society, whether formal or informal (Cohn, L.1976). The teaching methods in formal and informal education differ, but the two shares certain priciples. In formal education, co-techinh has bee used as one of the most effective teaching practices when it comes to assisting the students to improve their perfomance. This increases the students’ achievement. The impact of co-teaching in student achievement varies. Co-teaching uses different approaches. Despite the differences, the most important thing in co-teaching is to ensure that the students’ needs are appropriately addressed in a class environment. ReferencesAdams, L. , Cessna, K. , and Friend, M. (1993). Effectiveness Indicators of Collaboration in Special Education. General Education Co-teaching Final Report. Denver; Colorado. Department of Education Brooks, V. (2004). Preparing to Teach in Secondary Schools. Open University Press Capel, S. , and Turner, T. (2005). Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. Routledge Cohn, L. (1976). The Good Old Manners as Seen through the Sears. Ayer Publishers Cook, L. (2004). Co-teaching; Principles, Practices, and Pragmatics www. ped. state. nm. us/seo/library/qrtrly. 0404.coteaching. 1cook. pdf Accessed on October 9, 2008 Cowley, S. (2006). Getting the Buggers to Behave. Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd Curren, R. (2006). A Companion to the Philosophy of Education. Paperback Edition Ellis, V. (2004). Learning and Teaching in Secondary Schools. Learning Matters Ltd Gail, E. , Arnold, A. , Cynthia, W. (2001). Renaissance in the Classroom: Arts Integration and Mea ningful Learning. Published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Jill A. , Dianne K. , Judith K. , Kristin M. (2007). Common-sense Classroom Management forSpecial Education Teachers, Grades 6-12. Corwin Press Kyriacou, C. (2000). Stress-Busting for Teachers. Nelson Thornes Publishers Marston, N. Six Steps to Successful Co-teaching www. nea. org/teachexperience/spedk031113. html Accessed on October 9, 2008 Moran, G. (1997). Showing How: The Act of Teaching. Continuum International Publishing Group Richard, A. , Jackqueline, S. , and Anne, N. (2008). A Guide to Co-teaching: Practical Tips for Facilitating Student Learning. Corwin Press Publishers Rosenberg, M. (2003). Life-Enriching Education. Puddle Dancer Press

Scolding Brides And Bridling Scolds Taming The Woman s...

In Scolding Brides and Bridling Scolds: Taming the Woman s Unruly Member, Lynda Boose explains that when Kate puts her hand under Petruchio s boot it is part of the ceremonial custom when a bride was offered a share of property by her intended husband, but also a physical representation of the marriage vow to love, honor, and obey (182-183). Brides were increasingly indisposed to perform this part of the ceremony is apparent from all kinds of invented fumbling at the altar, for example dropping the rings, when the act of self-abasement was expected (183-184). Boose explains that the ceremonial debasement of women during their marriage ceremony was something that would be easily recognizable to an audience in Shakespeare’s time (184). Boose then moves on to the actual punishments of shrews in early modern England. She explains that during this time there was civil disorder and â€Å"strained gender relations† that ended with what some people would call â€Å"witch hunts† (184). This is interesting because it was more likely that a woman would get into trouble for mouthing off rather than committing sexual misconduct. The most popular form of punishment was public dunking in a public horse-wash pond (185). The woman charged with the offense would be attached to a â€Å"cucking stool†, paraded through the town square and then dunked in a dirty pond where people would wash their horses. Boose points out the line in 1.1.55 when Grumio declares that instead of courting Kate, a man shouldShow MoreRelatedEssay on Kate in William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew1760 Words   |  8 PagesKate in William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew Katharina or Kate, the shrew of William Shakespeares The Taming Of The Shrew is sharp-tongued, quick-tempered, and prone to violence and violent outbursts, especially to anyone who tries to win her love. This is shown from the beginning in Act One with the scene among Hortensio and Gremio and her. When Gremio proclaims her too rough